Different theories of retirement and ageing

Different theories of retirement and ageing When discussing the subject of retirement, the first issue that one comes across is that of defining what retirement is, and when it occurs. According to Denton and Spencer (2009), the Oxford English Dictionary defines retirement as follows: To withdraw from office, or an official position; to give up ones business or occupation in order to enjoy more leisure or freedom (especially after having made a competence or earned a pension). They continue to add that retirement can be voluntary or involuntary; gradual or sudden; temporary or permanent. Hence, there is no one clear definition which embodies all the possible situations. In contrast, Banks and Smith (2006), argue that retirement is made up of the following characteristics; it is a sudden, rather than a gradual process, it is a permanent and voluntary choice, it equals to drawing a pension, and it is a decision made by the individual rather than cooperatively with household members. This is the concept of retirement that is adopted by most economists. In addition, retirement is a state of mind in the sense that the individual recognizes him/herself as being retired. The definition is hence a subjective one which may mean different things to different people and populations. In itself, it is a broad word which encompasses a number of different elements. For many workers, retirement is seen as an opportunity of long awaited freedom from the responsibilities and stress of employment. It brings change and marks a transition into the later life stages. It is a time of recreation and travel, and an opportunity to develop new mental and physical routines. Planning and anticipating retirement play an essential part in the lives of many workers and their families. Recently, the new phenomenon of early retirement has become increasingly more popular (Rosenkoetter Garris, 2001). Shaw and Hill (2002) stated that a commonly used definition for retirement is an age-related withdrawal from active working life. However, one has to define what constitutes an active working life. Some researchers have chosen to allow their respondents to classify themselves as to whether they are retired or not. This approach, however, has the disadvantage that the definition of retirement will not be the same for everyone as some people who are working and receiving a previous job pension may consider themselves retired whilst others who have stopped working and are taking care of grandchildren, for instance, do not consider themselves as retired. Hence, different definitions of retirement result in different retirement patterns for men and women. The authors go on to argue that as there is no single best definition for retirement, the definition should be adapted according the question being asked, therefore multiple definitions would be helpful when dealing with specific differe nces in men and womens decisions to leave the paid work force. Origins and History of Retirement In their respective works, Graebner (1980) and Costa (2000) provide a brief history on the evolution of retirement. Back in the 1850s, 77% of men who were over 65 years were still working. Not working was viewed as inappropriate and hence people worked as long as they could. In pre-industrial America, most worked in agriculture, and in this area there was no retirement. When a man became too old to do strenuous work such as ploughing, his son would usually take over whilst he shifts to less demanding chores. Before the Civil War, the elderly were viewed as valued people, for a number of reasons such as their knowledge, hard-work, moral guidance they offered and the contribution in reforming the country. As they grew older, they were still respected and played important roles in the community and families. After the Civil War, though, this began to change. The nation shifted from being primarily rural to an increasingly urban society transformed by industrialization. Unlike agricultur al workers, urban workers did not have the familial support to enable them to shift to less strenuous work as they aged. By the 1880s, the American economy relied on manufacturing, and relationships between young and old workers started to become troublesome. The idea of retirement started to develop as a means to deal with these conflicts. As industrialization grew in the United States, business and government leaders realized that they need to develop a mechanism which would stimulate economic growth whilst assisting in the replacement of less efficient older workers with cheaper, younger ones. The preferred mechanism for this was the mandatory retirement of older workers. With the introduction of machines, one began to realize that older workers were neither fast nor strong enough to operate machinery and this slowed down production. By getting older workers out of the way, the workforce would be replaced with a younger, faster, and more efficient one. Attitudes toward elderly people became increasingly negative. By the early 1900s factory owners restricted the hiring of older people and reinforced retirement policies which were mandatory in order to get rid of the ones already employed. Since many business owners were uncomfortable with the idea of getting rid of loyal older workers leaving them without any employme nt and income whatsoever, some of them offered pensions or helped to build company homes for the elderly. By the year 1920, mandatory retirement with a small pension became the preferred method for moving older workers aside. Hence, employers eliminated older workers but in the mean time felt secure that the retired worker would have enough money to survive. Without any doubt, some older workers resisted this plan. Social services were almost inexistent and retirement meant a lower standard of living. Yet, when confronted with so many retirement rules, workers found themselves forced out of their jobs so much so that by the year 1920, almost half of all white male workers over the age of 60 were no longer in the workforce. Still, older workers discovered that retiring and receiving some sort of, even if an insufficient, pension was better than being pushed aside without nothing at all. The first federal retirement legislation became known as The Railroad Retirement Act of 1935, and was a testing ground for later development. The easiest way out of chronic unemployment in the country became the retirement of all older persons; the only problem was making sure that pensions are available. Things changed once again during World War II when anyone who could went back to work. This put back the country into full employment once again. However, after the war, retirement was once again the mechanism which controlled costs and employment rates. Even though pensions became increasingly common, many retired workers remained unhappy about the idea of retirement so much so that an alarming number even refused to apply for social benefits. Hence, business and governments started to instil ideas to older workers with the idyllic thoughts of leisure, and the well-earned reward of free time at their age. This is when insurance companies started to make large profits out of life insurance policies and when sociologists formed the theories of aging. By the late 1960s, the mythology of retirement was completely assimilated into Americans minds. In the mid-1980s, mandates changed pension rules so that widows were not left without any benefits. Also, social security benefits were increased and as a result, the percent of pensioners living in poverty significantly dropped. By the 1970s and 1980s, pensions were fixed to a retirement formula which depended on the length of service and final salary of the person. This meant that a worker would not know what pension he would receive until he actually retired. To avoid all this, business shifted from traditional defined pension plans to defined contribution plans where they promised that a contribution of a certain amount would be done towards each workers pension. Benefits and Drawbacks of Retirement According to Coni, Davison, and Webster (1992), during retirement income is likely to be reduced, however occupational pensions which are becoming more common offer greater monetary security. Those who have become overly dependent on trappings of their employment may realize that their status has changed and that they miss the company of the work-place. On the other hand, retirement should be looked upon as a time of opportunity, which after all, may last for more than 30 years. If the approach towards retirement is a happy and an enthusiastic one, then it is very likely that it will live up to expectations. When it comes to learning new material, older learners usually do better due to higher motivation levels, and increased self-knowledge. The authors go on to argue that everybody has to find their own way through old age and retirement, and if one, at his or her age, feel happy and comfortable doing something, then that thing is right for him or her. When it comes to relationships , retirement may be the only time that one can truly live together with their partner since they are no longer kept apart by employment and family, even though difficulties may arise in this regard as well. Regarding fitness, one should keep in mind that the fitter one is, the less likely it is to become ill and the more likely one would make a full and swift recovery. Since the elderly are affected with degenerative changes, attention should be paid to both physical and mental fitness. Muscles waste in a sedentary lifestyle but they have the ability to redevelop and this can be achieved by doing an activity which one enjoys and gives them pleasure. These include; walking the dog, ballroom dancing, and even cultivating a garden. Mental activities should be taken up to develop and maintain the mind by learning, re-learning, or improving a foreign language. Prevention of illness is a lifelong need, and good habits must be started early and maintained throughout. A common reason for ea gerly anticipating retirement may be the wish to be freed from a strict routine inflicted by employment, which is understandable, but also inappropriate. Retirement should provide the opportunity of restructuring ones routine. This can be done by establishing enough time for physical activity, some time for learning, time for family and time for ones self. Having said all this, during retirement, one may be faced by unpleasant tasks, decisions, and situations. Therefore, fore-thinking potential problems such as loneliness, bereavement, becoming a carer, or becoming disabled, will always help to deal with such dilemmas. Windmill (1992), states that retirement can mean a loss of status, a sense of no longer being a useful society member, losing ones sense of purpose, and becoming part of the receiving end of society. However, one should understand the importance of preparing for retirement so that mental, physical, and social changes do not come by as a shock. Retirement means planning finances, doing leisure activities, and considering health and housing needs. Eliopoulos (1993) adds that retirement may be the first experience of the impact of ageing for many. It is facilitated by learning how to use, appreciate and gain satisfaction from leisure time, which is also a therapeutic outlet for life stresses. The author also mentions the stages of retirement developed by Robert Atchley in 1975, which, however, not all retirees go through: the remote phase where retirement is anticipated but preparation is seldom done; the near phase when preparation for leaving the job begins; the honeymoon phase which is the euphoric period that follows retirement; the disenchantment phase where depression may be experienced; the reorientation phase where realistic choices are considered; the stability phase when an understanding of a retirement roles is achieved and the termination phase when retirement role is lost due to illness or disability. Studies suggest this life event may be a stressful even for those experiencing health or financial issues at the time of retirement; however, those who manage to plan out their retirement are less likely to experience financial burdens. For some, retirement may mean loss of income and identity, loss of status authority, loss of purpose in life and loss of peer contacts (Miller, 1995). Retirement in Malta Locally, workers nearing the retirement age may be eligible for a retirement pension. A person would be eligible to a Contributory Retirement Pension if he or she satisfies a number of conditions; the person has reached the retirement age, 61 for males, and 60 for females, the worker has been employed or self-employed for not less than 10 year prior to retirement; the worker has paid at least 156 contributions; and that on the day of retirement, the worker has satisfied the relevant contribution conditions (Ministry of Education, Employment and the Family, 2011). The General Workers Union (2009) offers a course entitled Preparazzjoni ghall-Irtirar (Preparation for Retirement) and also houses a Pensioners Association whose major task is to attend to special and particular needs of pensioners and retired workers. It protects rights and interests, and safeguards pension levels and standard of living. Cultural, social, and educational activities are held annually and membership is open to all retired workers. Planning for Retirement According to Coni et al., (1992), we should all be planning our own retirement throughout our lives, and that even school-aged children should receive some form of instruction about the topic. This would enable younger people to have a better understanding of what ageing is and learn about some complexities of being old. Having hobbies and leisure pursuits at a young age may introduce them to activities that they enjoy. Hence, once retired, one would be able to revert to these activities. Financial planning must also start early because in order for one to have a secure retirement capital, an adequate income must firstly be assured. Unfortunately, attention also needs to be paid towards the possibility of widowhood (especially in women), and that remarriage may be an additional complication. Rosenkoetter Garris (2001), state that in a study carried out in 1989, retirement planning was the second strongest predictor of satisfaction amongst male respondents, and in another study in 1997; it was found that retirement planning correlated with positive attitudes towards retirement. By participating in pre-retirement programs or courses, one can start assessing his or her attitudes and preparedness towards retiring. These courses would be most successful if they manage to address financial and health matters. Since retirement may prove a new meaning and value to ones life, pre-retirement counseling assists individuals in their preparation. In an Australian study, it was noted that retirement may be a stressful and challenging event and that planning was directly correlated with successful adaptation. The authors conclude that post-retirement perceptions of planning most of the time may not correspond with pre-retirement preparation. In their study, more emphasis was placed of financial planning and psychosocial adjustment to their life after employment. There was a significant increase in sedentary activities with may correlate with an increased risk of health problems found in this age group, hence retirees should be encouraged not only in social interactions, but in physical activity too. Differences were found in planning according to the persons employment position, which relates to the need of developing post-retirement planning programs which are individualized to the type of worker. In their study, Phua and McNall (2008) concluded that as men age, concern about securing their finances increases and that this issue remains at top priority among people approaching retirement. The authors say that studies show that retirees eventually adjust their spending patterns according to the dynamics of their financial situation. Expectations towards marriage and having children is another issues that affects pre-retirement planning and this includes a need to resolve the conflict between saving and increased demands on financial resources that a family can require. According to Elder and Rudolph (1999), retirement satisfaction is based on both financial and non-financial variables. Results from their study indicated that attending preretirement courses and planning meetings were positively related to retirement satisfaction. Also, planning out activities correlated with an increased likelihood of retirement satisfaction. Theories of Ageing Throughout the years, scientists have been trying to develop theories of ageing in an attempt to answer questions such as Why do we age? and How do we age?. Early sociologic theories, in the 1960s, focused on adjustments of older people towards loss of roles and reference groups. Theories which are based on these themes include the disengagement, activity, and continuity theories. In 1961, Cumming and Henry published their first sociologic theory of ageing: the disengagement theory. According to this theory, a process of mutual disengagement takes place during aging where both the individual and the society in which he or she belong withdraw from each other (Redfern, 1996). This process is an inevitable one, and is governed by societys needs which dominate individual needs. This theory further states that older people desire this withdrawal, and as the social contacts of a person diminish, disengagement becomes a circular process that further limits opportunities of interaction (Miller, 1995). Another theory of ageing is the activity theory which is based on the belief that in order for one to age successfully, he or she must keep active. It was first stated by Havighurst and Albrecht in 1953 who said that social role participation is essential for positive adjustment to old age. In 1963, Havighurst and colleagues created the term activity theory. In 1972, then, it was Lemon and colleagues who formalized the theory which proposed that older people could only remain psychologically and socially fit if they remained active and that loss of roles in old age affect life satisfaction negatively. Above all, the quality of interaction is more important than the quantity of activity (Miller, 1995). The continuity (or developmental) theory was put forward by Neugarten in 1968 because none of the other theories successfully explained ageing. According to this theory, a persons coping strategies are in place long before he or she starts to age, however personality features are continuously dynamic and evolving. Therefore the best way to predict how a person will adjust to ageing is by examining how that same person has adjusted to situations throughout his or her life. This theory hence brings out the importance of the relationship between personality and successful ageing (Miller, 1995). Some other proposed theories of ageing include; the subculture theory proposed by Rose (1962, 1965), which states that old people have their own norms, beliefs, habits, and expectations and hence have their own subculture, the age stratification theory by Riley in 1972, which explains the interdependencies between age as an element of social structure and ageing and cohorts as a social process. Other theories include the person-environment fit theory and the human needs theory (Miller, 1995).

Types of Listening

Types of listening Here are six types of listening, starting with basic discrimination of sounds and ending in deepcommunication. Discriminative listening Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference between difference soundsis identified. If you cannot hear differences, then you cannot make sense of the meaning that is expressed bysuch differences. We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language early, and later areunable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages.This is one reason why a person from onecountry finds it difficult to speak another language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish the subtle soundsthat are required in that language. Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in another person's voice will be lesslikely to be able to discern the emotions the other person is experiencing. Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much throughbody la nguage. We thus alsoneed to be able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal movements that signify different meanings.Biased listening Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to hear, typically misinterpreting whatthe other person says based on thestereotypesand other biases that they have. Such biased listening isoften very evaluative in nature. Evaluative listening In evaluative listening, or critical listening , we make judgments about what the other person is saying. Weseek to assess the truth of what is being said. We also judge what they say against ourvalues, assessingthem as good or bad, worthy or unworthy.Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is trying to persuade us, perhaps tochange our behavior and maybe even to change ourbeliefs. Within this, we also discriminate betweensubtleties of language and comprehend the inner meaning of what is said. Typically also we weigh up the prosand cons of an argument, determin ing whether it makes sense logically as well as whether it is helpful to us. Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive listening. Appreciative listeningIn appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for example that which helpsmeet ourneedsandgoals. We use appreciative listening when we are listening to good music, poetry ormaybe even the stirring words of a great leader. Sympathetic listeningIn sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this concern in the way we pay closeattention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness at their joys. Empathetic listening When we listenempathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer understand how others are feeling.This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to the nuances of emotional signals. When we arebeing truly empathetic, we actually feel what they are feeling. In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we also need to demonstrate ourempathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively and in a way that encourages self-disclosure. Therapeutic listening In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing with the speaker but also to usethis deep connection in order to help the speaker understand, change or develop in some way.This not onlyhappens when you go to see a therapist but also in many social situations, where friends and family seek toboth diagnose problems from listening and also to help the speaker cure themselves, perhaps by somecathartic process. This also happens in work situations, where managers, HR people, trainers and coachesseek to help employees learn and develop. Relationship listening Sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop or sustain a relationship.This is whylovers talk for hours and attend closely to what each other has to say when the same words from someoneelse would seem to be rather boring. Relationship listening is also important in areas such as negotiation and sales, where it is helpful if the otherperson likes you and trusts you. False listening False listening occurs where a person is pretending to listen but is not hearing anything that is being said. They may nod, smile and grunt in all the right places, but do not actually take in anything that is said.This is askill that may be finely honed by people who do a lot of inconsequential listening, such as politicians androyalty. Their goal with their audience is to make a good impression in very short space of time before theymove on, never to talk to that person again. It is also something practiced by couples, particularly where oneside does most of the talking. However, the need for relationship here can lead to this being spotted (‘You'renot listening again! ‘) and consequent conflict. Initial listeningSometimes when we listen we hear the first few words and then start to think about what we want t o say inreturn. We then look for a point at which we can interrupt. We are also not listening then as we are spendingmore time rehearsing what we are going to say about their initial point. Selective listening Selective listening involves listening for particular things and ignoring others. We thus hear what we want tohear and pay little attention to ‘extraneous' detail. Partial listeningPartial listening is what most of us do most of the time.We listen to the other person with the best of intentand then become distracted, either by stray thoughts or by something that the other person has said. Weconsequently dip inside our own heads for a short while as we figure out what they really mean or formulate a question for them, before coming back into the room and starting to listen again. This can be problematicwhen the other person has moved on and we are unable to pick up the threads of what is being said. We thuseasily can fall into false listening, at least for a short while. This can be embarrassing, of course, if theysuddenly ask your opinion.A tip here: own up, admitting that you had lost the thread of the conversation andasking them to repeat what was said. Full listening Full listening happens where the listener pays close and careful attention to what is being said, seekingcarefully to understand the full content that the speaker is seeking to put across. This may be very active form of listening, with pauses for summaries and testing that understanding iscomplete. By the end of the conversation, the listener and the speaker will probably agree that the listenerhas fully understood what was said.Full listening takes much more effort than partial listening, as it requires close concentration, possibly for aprotracted period. It also requires skills of understanding and summary. Deep listening Beyond the intensity of full listening, you can also reach into a form of listening that not only hears what issaid but also seeks to understand the whole pers on behind the words. In deep listening, you listen between the lines of what is said, hearing theemotion, watching thebody language, detectingneedsandgoals, identifyingpreferencesand biases, perceivingbeliefsandvalues, and soon.

The Number One Question You Must Ask for Topics to Write an Argumentative Essay on

The Number One Question You Must Ask for Topics to Write an Argumentative Essay on Therefore, to write a great essay you need to brainstorm all thoughts concerning your life experiences. Violence in a wide sense is the usage of force on another which causes some sort of harm. Once you choose the topic which suits you most, bear in mind the reason you write your essay, concentrate on the main details to tell about in your text and don't neglect the significance of senses and feelings in your essay. In that situation, the topic will appeal to the majority of women since it's relatable. Every essay should have an ideal conclusion otherwise the entire essay may be spoiled. An opinion essay outline appears much enjoy a conventional essay outline. It is possible to produce a more original bit of writing. You don't wish to lose grades because of incorrect essay format. Whatever They Told You About Topics to Write an Argumentative Essay on Is Dead Wrong...And Here's Why Such sort of essay has an extensive collection of topics. Make sure your essay topic isn't broad, as it is going to not be possible that you reveal the key points. Opinion essay examples are simple to find. Although you may know what format, style guide, and whether the essay ought to be double spaced, you might be confused on what actually produces a great essay topic. When it has to do with writing an argumentative essay, the most significant point to do is to select a topic and an argument you could really get behind. An excellent topic will ensure it is simpler to pursue the purpose of an argumentative essay, which is, apparently, the entire investigation of the problem you speak about. Quite frequently, the very best topic is one which you truly care about, but you also will need to get ready to research it. You don't need to acquire super technical with legal argumentative essays, but make sure to do your homework on what the present laws about your favorite topic actually say. It is going to also be a lot easier to write about a topic you're passionate about. You could possibly be assigned a specific topic or asked to select the topic by yourself. If this is the case, you've got yourself a very good topic. The Battle Over Topics to Write an Argumentative Essay on and How to Win It Persuasive essays are a fantastic method to encourage the reader to check at a particular topic in a different light. It is not sufficient to offer an overview of each observed text. If you are searching for examples of argumentative essays, here's a sample that will help you out! Persuasive essay format differs in every specific instance, though it has some common facets. The Upside to Topics to Write an Argumentative Essay on Professionals of the customized writing are here in order to help you! Downloading numerous samples and templates on a particular topic can help you to comprehend the subject, to observe how every section needs to be completed and to discover new tips for your own work! To avoid that, you've got to make an outline before writing the text and stick with it. List down all of the intriguing topics that you run into. Inspiration to make your own advertising or media argumentative essay topics isn't tough to discover. If you face the task to compose a crucial essay about technology, we advise you to try out the upcoming topics. Be attentive to the size it must be and get started writing the narrative essay outline. When writing an important composition, it's a good idea to pick contradictive topics. How to Choose Topics to Write an Argumentative Essay on Such essay is based on a superior research and knowledge of all of the advantages and disadvantages of the chosen topic. Expository essay is a sort of assignment that demands demonstration of your research and reasoning skills on a specific topic. Essay about politics have become the most obvious option if you require a sure-fire subject. If you would like to create a descriptive essay about your own personal experience, it might be unusual and specific. If you want to discover what you will write about in your essay, these suggestions ar e what you demand. You might discover that a lot of the topics can be adapted to suit almost any sort of writing assignment. If you can choose the subject by yourself, you get a good benefit! Besides having an intriguing essay topic, you should use develop it in an appropriate way. 1 school of thought believes that children who aren't occupied are more inclined to get into trouble. In fact, understanding how to compose a persuasive essay is a significant skill for students of various specialties. If do not have any single idea about what to write about, look through the topics you've already passed in your textbooks. Bear in mind the topic ought to be interesting and catching not just for you, but additionally for the instructor.

Marketing Glitz - 1281 Words

1003 MKT Individual Assignment - Glitzz Case Study 1. What factors influence the pricing decisions for a product such as Glitzz? Analyze the factors and comment on the range of prices that can be set for Glitzz. The factors that influence the pricing decisions for Glitzz are the pricing objectives, costs, and demand. The pricing objectives will be needed to direct the role of the price in the market. Higher prices will need to be set if the objective is to have higher profit margin instead of higher market share. However, if the objective is to survive in the industry, the prices need to be low to get more sales to meet its operating cost. For the case of Glitzz, the pricing objective is between having higher market share and to†¦show more content†¦A product that brings positive benefits to the customers should not set its price at a very low rate as it will devalue the product and lost credibility for the benefits that the product has promised. In addition, the price should not be over $ 20 as research has been conducted to show that very few customers are willing to pay above $20 for the product. 3. What Strategy would you propose for Glitzz? What costs and expenses would be involved? Given your recommended price in (2), what would be the breakeven point? I would recommend Glitzz to use Flexible-price policy together with demand and competition oriented approaches like prestige, odd-even and above-market pricing. Both the demand and competition oriented approaches focus on consumer demand, revenue implication and the markets performance and this helps Glitzz to stay competitive and in operation. Moreover, with flexible pricing policy, Glitzz is able to use price discrimination by setting different prices for different type of customers. The price can be set at a discount for business to business customers like Lee Hwa. 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